Talking about cause and effect

Talking about cause and effect

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Cause and effect

When we talk about an effect resulting from a certain cause, we use expressions such as: because, since, as, owing to, due to...

 Examples

• The police arrested him because he broke into a bank.
• The police arrested him since he broke into a bank.
• She can't read the letter as she is illiterate.
• He can't run fast for he is too fat.
• Owing to his intelligence, he managed to solve the problem.
• Due to the bad weather, they didn't go for a picnic.

Other ways to express cause and effect:

You can also express cause and effect as follows:

• The cause of …is…
• …is caused by / is due to …
• Thanks to ...

 Examples:

The cause of	global warming	is pollution.
Global warming	is caused by	pollution.
	is due to

Thanks to

his hard work ,

he passed the exam

Is there a difference between due to and owing to?

Owing to and due to are used interchangeably by native speakers although some state that there is a difference.
a. Due to:
If you can use caused by then you can also use due to:
Example:

"The cancellation of the flight was due to (caused by) high winds."

b. Owing to:
If you can use because of then you should use owing to rather than due to:
Example:

"The flight was canceled owing to (because of) high winds."

Use of thanks to

People tend to use thanks to in positive situations.
Example:

"Thanks to his intelligence he managed to find the solution to that math problem."

Sometimes thanks to is used ironically in a negative way
Example:

"Did she lose the election?"
"Yeah, thanks to you and to all the others who didn't bother to vote."
"The baby is awake thanks to your shouting."

Things to remember about cause and effect:

a. Due to, because of, owing to and thanks to are followed by a noun.
b. Because, since, as, for are followed by a verb.

Due to	+      Noun
Because of
Owing to
Thanks to

because	Subject + Verb
since
as
for

Examples:

• Due to his laziness, he didn't pass the exam.
• Thanks to her beauty, she attracted the attention of all the guests.
• Because / since /as / they are in love, they forgive each other's mistakes.

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Expressing Probability

Expressing Probability

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Expressing probability or improbability:

See the difference between probability and possibility.

There are many ways to say that something will probably or improbably happen.

Probability / improbability

...	may might can could	...
... will	probably
It's	probable improbable likely unlikely	that ...

I	doubt suppose guess	... will ...
	'd be surprised	if ....

Perhaps May be

... will ...

Examples of probability:

• It is probable that my grandfather repairs my bike.
• May be / perhaps the problem won’t be serious.
• It will probably rain this evening.
• I’m likely to do the work myself.

Examples of improbability:

• No, probably not.
• I don't suppose my grandfather will repair the bike.
• I doubt my father will buy me a new computer, either.
• She is unlikely to return home early this evening.
• I'd be surprised if he got the best score.
• It's unlikely he will find his lost keys.

Expressing probability in the past:

...

may might can could

have

Past Participle

Examples of probability in the past:

• He may have robbed your computer while you were out.
• The criminal might have threatened her. That's why, she was afraid of him.
• The author might have carried a deep research on the subject. That's why his book is so interesting.

Examples of improbability in the past:

• He may have not lived in this town. Nobody seems to know him.
• She can't have helped him in his crime as they have never met before.

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How to Apologizing

Apologizing

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Apologizing

To apologize is to tell someone that you are sorry for having done something that has caused him inconvenience or unhappiness:

Examples:

 I must apologize to Isabel for my late arrival.
 I'd like to apologize for my trouble making.
Trains may be subject to delay on the northern line. We apologize for any inconvenience caused.
Here are some expressions you can use to make and respond to apologies

Making apologies:

• I do apologize for...
• I must apologize for...
• I apologize for...
• I'd like to apologize for...
• I am so sorry for...
• I shouldn't have...
• It's all my fault.
• I'm ashamed of...
• Please, forgive me for...
• Excuse me for ...
• I'm terribly sorry for...
• Pardon me for this...
• Please, forgive me for my....
• Please, accept my apologies for...

Accepting apologies:

• That's all right.
• Never mind.
• Don't apologize.
• It doesn't matter.
• Don't worry about it.
• Don't mention it.
• That's OK.
• I quite understand.
• You couldn't help it.
• Forget about it.
• Don't worry about it.
• No harm done.

Remember:

"I'd like to apologize" is the short form of "I would like to apologize"

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Expressing Possibility

Expressing Possibility

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What is the difference between possibility and probability?

Possibility is when there is a chance that something may happen or be true while probability is the likelihood of something happening or being true:

Example:
"Until yesterday, the project was just a possibility, but now it has become a real probability."
It is likely that it will happen.

Expressing Possibility

• My grandmother may travel alone.
• May be she will make the trip alone.
• Perhaps she will visit London.
• Possibly, she will go by plane.
• It's possible that someone will meet her at the airport.
• She might buy some presents for the family before she goes.
• I suppose she might spend a lot of money on the presents.
• There's a chance she'll like the city.
• She will take an umbrella as it could rain heavily there..

Expressing impossibility

• No, it's impossible to repair that old Chevrolet.
• Even a good mechanic can't possibly fix it.
• We may not be able to travel by car.
• There's no chance my father repairs it tomorrow.

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Making and responding to a request

Making and responding to a request

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Making and responding to a request

It's important to be polite when you ask for something.
You can make a request by using:

• can you ...?
• could you ...?
• will you ...?
• would you mind ...?

Here are some examples of how to make a request..

Can you Will you Could you possibly	open the door for me, please?
would you mind	opening the door for me ?

Making Request:

• Can you show me your photo album, please?
• Will you lend me your book, please?
• Could you possibly show me the way to the post office, please?
• Would you help me with this exercise, please?
• Would you mind lending me your pen, please?

Responding to request:

• Sure here you are.
• Okey.
• No, I'm sorry I need it
• I'm afraid I can't.

Things to remember about making a request:

1. "Would you mind..." is followed by a gerund (verb+ing)
Example:"Would you mind lending me your book? "
2. The response to the following request:

A: "Would you mind giving me your book? "

is either

• "No, I don't mind."(which is a positive response to the request. It means that I accept to lend you my book)
• or "Yes." (which is a negative response to the request. It means that I don't want to lend you my book.)

3. Could is more polite than can.

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Direct and Indirect Object

Direct and Indirect Object

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What is an object?

An object in grammar is a part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It refers to someone or something involved in thesubject's "performance" of the verb. It is what the verb is being done to. As an example, the following sentence is given:

Subject	Verb	Object
Leila	wrote	the poem

• "Leila" is the subject, the doer or performer,
• "wrote" is a verb that refers to the action,
• "the poem" is the object involved in the action.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

A verb can be classified as transitive or intransitive according to whether it takes or doesn't take an object:

• If a verb takes objects, then it is a transitive verb.
  Example:
  They played soccer. → (The verb play takes ONE object 'soccer')
  They sent him a postcard. → (The verb send takes TWO objects 'him' and 'a postcard')
• If a verb doesn't take an object, then it is an intransitive verb.
  Example:
  She lies. → (The verb 'lie' doesn't take any object)
  The building collapsed. → (The verb 'collapse' doesn't take any object)

Types of objects

There are two types of objects: direct and indirect objects:

Direct object

A direct object answers the question "what?" or "whom?"
Examples:

• David repaired his car → his car is the direct object of the verb repaired. ( What did David repair?)
• He invited Mary to the party → Mary is the direct object of the verb invited. (Whom did he invite?)

Indirect Object

An indirect object answers the question "to whom?", "for whom?", "for what?"...
An indirect object is the recipient of the direct object, or an otherwise affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence. In other words an indirect object cannot exist without a direct object.
Examples:

• They sent him a postcard - him is the indirect object of the verb sent. (To whom did they send a postcard?)
• He bought his son a bike - his son is the indirect object of the verb bought. (For whom did he buy a bike?)

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Predicate

Predicate

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What is a predicate?

In traditional grammar, a sentence consists of two parts:

• a subject,
• a predicate which modifies the subject.

consider the following sentence:

• Bill likes soccer.

Bill is the subject and likes soccer acts as the predicate (a subsequent description of the subject which is headed with the verb likes.)
Predicates provide information about the subject, such as what the subject is doing or what the subject is like. It must contain a verb but may also contain other sentence elements. These elements may be objects (direct and indirect objects), adverbials...

Examples of predicates

• He laughs. (Predicate containing only a verb)
• She writes poems. (Direct object)
• They gave me a gift . (Indirect object and a direct object)
• He saw her in the hospital . (Adverbial)

When the subject and the predicate are connected with a linking verb, the predicate is either nominal, adjectival or adverbial complement:

Nominal predicates:

• He is the president.
• These are the candidates.

Adjectival predicates:

• She is beautiful.
• They are careless.

Adverbial complement:

• He is in the kitchen.
• We are in the house.

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Shall and Will

Shall and Will

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What is the difference between shall and will?

Shall is not used often in modern English especially in American English. In fact, shall and will have the same meaning and are used to refer to the simple future. They are use as follows:

• will is used with all persons
  

  I, you, he, she, it, we, they	will	go there

• shall is used with the first person singular and plural
  

  I, we	shall	go

• The short form of will and shall is 'll

  I, you, he, she, it, we, they	will or 'll	call you

  
  

  I, we	shall or 'll	call you

• In the negative, the short forms of will not and shall not are won't and shan't respectively
  

  I, you, he, she, it, we, they	won't	give up

  
  

  I, we	shan't	give up

Uses of shall

It should be noted that shall is often used to make suggestions, offers or ask for advice. It is used in questions as follows:

• Shall we stay or go out?
• Shall we dance?
• Shall I get his phone number if I meet him?
• What shall I do to get rid of my acne?

As said above shall is used with first person singular and plural (I and we.) But there is a very special use of shall with other persons to make a promise, command or threat as noted below:

• You shall not get in! (Command)
• You shall pay for it. (Threat)
• You shall get your money back soon. (Promise)

In American English shall is mainly used in formal or legal documents:

• You shall abide by the law.
• There shall be no trespassing on this property.
• Students shall not enter this room.

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Must and Have to

Must and Have to

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What's the difference between must and have to?

Must and have to are modal verbs in English. This page will guide you to the proper use of these modals.

Must

1. We use must to make a logical deduction based on evidence. It indicates that the speaker is certain about something:
Examples:

• It has rained all day, it must be very wet outside.
• The weather is fantastic in California. It must a lot fun to live there.

2. Must is also used to express a strong obligation.
Examples:

• Students must arrive in class on time.
• You must stop when the traffic lights are red.
• I must go to bed.

Have to

Like must, have to is used to express strong obligation, but when we use have to there is usually a sense of external obligation. Some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary.
Examples:

• I have to send an urgent email.
• I have to take this book back to the library.

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Modals in the Present and Past

Modals in the Present and Past

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Modals in the present and past

Generally speaking modals in the past have the following form:

• modal + have + past participle

Example:

• Present:
  You should see a doctor.
• Past:
  You should have seen a doctor

Except for modals that express obligation,ability and lack of necessity:

• Obligation:
  Present = I must / have to work hard. -- Past = I had to work hard.
• Ability:
  Present = I can run fast. -- Past = I could run fast when I was young.
• Lack of necessity:
  Present = You don't have to / needn't take your umbrella. -- Past = You didn't have to / didn't need to take your umbrella.

	Modals in the Present	Modals in the Past
Obligation	You must / have to stop when the traffic lights are red.	You had to stop.
Advice	You should see a doctor.	You should have seen a doctor
Prohibition	You mustn't smoke here.	You mustn't have smoked there.
Ability	I can run fast.	I could run fast. now I am old.
Certainty	He has a Rolls Royce. He must be very rich. He can't be American. His English is terrible.	He must have been rich. He had a big house and an expensive car. He can't have written that poem. He was illiterate.
Permission	Can I go out?	She could drive her father's car when she was only 15.
Possibility	It may / can / could / might rain. It's cloudy.	I guess it may / can / could / might have been Lacy on the phone.
Lack of necessity	You don't have to / needn't buy any tomatoes. There are plenty in the fridge.	You didn't have to / didn't need to buy tomatoes.

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Modal verbs and their meaning

Modal verbs and their meaning

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What are modal verbs?

Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like "work, play, visit..." They give additional information about the function of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions.
Here are some characteristics of modal verbs:

• They never change their form. You can't add "s", "ed", "ing"...
• They are always followed by an infinitive without "to" (e.i. the bare infinitive.)
• They are used to indicate modality allow speakers to express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability

List of modal verbs

Here is a list of modal verbs:

can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must

The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need not behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent and my be added to the above list

Use of modal verbs:

Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:

1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability

Examples of modal verbs

Here is a list of modals with examples:

Modal Verb	Expressing	Example
must	Strong obligation	You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
	logical conclusion / Certainty	He must be very tired. He's been working all day long.
must not	prohibition	You must not smoke in the hospital.
can	ability	I can swim.
	permission	Can I use your phone please?
	possibility	Smoking can cause cancer.
could	ability in the past	When I was younger I could run fast.
	polite permission	Excuse me, could I just say something?
	possibility	It could rain tomorrow!
may	permission	May I use your phone please?
	possibility, probability	It may rain tomorrow!
might	polite permission	Might I suggest an idea?
	possibility, probability	I might go on holiday to Australia next year.
need not	lack of necessity/absence of obligation	I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in the fridge.
should/ought to	50 % obligation	I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.
	advice	You should / ought to revise your lessons
	logical conclusion	He should / ought to be very tired. He's been working all day long.
had better	advice	You 'd better revise your lessons

Remember

Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to", also called the bare infinitive.

Examples:

• You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
• You should see to the doctor.
• There are a lot of tomatoes in the fridge. You need not buy any.

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Father's Day -Reading Comprehension Test

Reading Comprehension - Father's Day

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Develop your reading skills. Read the following text and do the comprehension questions

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Father's Day was created to complement Mother's Day. Like Mother's Day which honors mothers and motherhood, Father's Day celebrates fatherhood and paternal bonds; it highlights the influence of fathers in society. Many countries celebrate it on the third Sunday of June, but it is also celebrated widely on other days.
Historically, Sonora Smart Dodd was the woman behind the celebtration of male parenting. Her father, the Civil War veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there. After hearing a sermon about Jarvis' Mother's Day in 1909, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday honoring them. Although she initially suggested June 5, her father's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday of June. The first celebration was in Spokane, Washington at the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) on June 19, 1910.
In recognition of what fathers do for their families, on this day people may have a party celabrating male parenting or simply make a phone call or send a greeting card. Besides, schools help children prepare handmade gifts for their fathers many days before the celabration.
Source: Wikipedia

Comprehension:

1. Father's Day was first celebrated in the 19th century.
   a.  True
   b.  False 
2. William Jackson Smart promoted the celabration.
   a.  True
   b.  False 
3. William Jackson Smart was a single father
   a.  True
   b.  False
4. It was first celebrated in Washington.
   a.  True
   b.  False

 

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Climate change and global warming -Reading Comprhension Test

Develop your reading skills. Read the following text and do the comprehension questions

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Climate Change and Global Warming

Climate change

Wikipedia defines climate as follows:

Climate encompasses the statis
tics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elements in a given region over a long period of time. Climate can be contrasted to weather, which is the present condition of these same elements and their variations over shorter time periods.

Climate may be inherently variable as evidenced by the irregularity of the seasons from one year to another. This variability is normal and may remain partially understood. It is related to changes in ocean currents, volcanic eruptions, solar radiation and other components of the climate system. In addition, our climate also has its extremes (such as floods, droughts, hail, tornadoes and hurricanes), which can be devastating. However, in recent decades, a number of indicators and studies show more and more evidence of climate warming across the globe. A disturbing phenomenon that challenges human habits and activities which are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions.

The green house effect

The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F). But Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750. These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. Over the last three decades of the 20th century, GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions. CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.

Consequences of global warming

There are two major effects of global warming: the increase of temperature on the earth by about 3° to 5° C (5.4° to 9° Fahrenheit) by the year 2100 and Rise of sea levels by at least 25 meters (82 feet) by the year 2100. Other consequences are listed below:

• Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean, in addition to melting of land ice.
• Amounts and patterns of precipitation are changing.
• The total annual power of hurricanes has already increased markedly since 1975 because their average intensity and average duration have increased.
• Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns increase the frequency, duration, and intensity of other extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat waves, and tornadoes.
• Higher or lower agricultural yields, further glacial retreat, reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions.
• Diseases like malaria are returning into areas where they have been extinguished earlier.

Sources: Wikipedia | Time for change

Comprehension:

1. Climate is by definition variable.
   a.  True
   b.  False 
2. Climate change observed in the last decades is natural.
   a.  True
   b.  False
3. Global warming is caused by industrialization.
   a.  True
   b.  False 
4. Greenhouse effects have no impacts on our health.
   a.  True
   b.  False

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Reading Comprehension - Mother's Day

Reading Comprehension - Mother's Day

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Develop your reading skills. Read the following text and do the comprehension questions

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Mother's Day

The modern Mother's Day is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in March, April, or May as a day to honor mothers and motherhood. In the UK and Ireland, it follows the old traditions of Mothering Sunday, celebrated in March/April.
Historically, the celebration has it origin in ancient customs and traditions. The ancient Greeks kept a festival to Cybele, a great mother of Greek gods. The ancient Romans also had another holiday, Matronalia, that was dedicated to Juno (an ancient Roman goddess), though mothers were usually given gifts on this day. In Europe there were several long standing traditions where a specific Sunday was set aside to honor motherhood and mothers such as Mothering Sunday which is a Christian festival celebrated throughout Europe that falls on the 4th Sunday in Lent. One of the early calls to celebrate Mother's Day in the United States was the "Mother's Day Proclamation" by Julia Ward Howe. Written in 1870, the Proclamation was tied to Howe's feminist belief that women had a responsibility to shape their societies at the political level.
Today the holiday has become very popular around the world. People take the day as an opportunity to pay tribute to their mothers and thank them for all their love and support. There is also a tradition of gifting flowers, cards and other gift to mothers on the occasion.
Source: Wikipedia

Comprehension:

1. Mother's Day is celebrated on the same date around the world.
   a.  True
   b.  False
2. The celebration's origin is ancient.
   a.  True
   b.  False
3. Mothering Sunday is observed in the United States.
   a.  True
   b.  False
4. In the USA, Mother's Day was initially related to the feminists demands to recognize the importance of women.
   a.  True
   b.  False

 

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Conversations on the Phone

Conversations on the Phone

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Telephone conversations

It is common that English speakers make phone calls either for business reasons or personal affairs. These are expressions you can use in your conversations on the phone.

• You 've reached .... company/department.
• How can I help you?
• Can I speak to Mr/Mrs.....?
• Could I speak to ...., please?
• Who shall I say is calling?
• Who's calling, please?
• Who's speaking?
• It's Mr/Mrs... here.
• It's Mr/Mrs... speaking.
• Mr/Mrs... speaking.
• Please hold and I'll put you through.
• Just a second. I'll see if s/he is in.
• Hang on for a moment.

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Conversations on the Phone

Conversations on the Phone

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Telephone conversations

It is common that English speakers make phone calls either for business reasons or personal affairs. These are expressions you can use in your conversations on the phone.

• You 've reached .... company/department.
• How can I help you?
• Can I speak to Mr/Mrs.....?
• Could I speak to ...., please?
• Who shall I say is calling?
• Who's calling, please?
• Who's speaking?
• It's Mr/Mrs... here.
• It's Mr/Mrs... speaking.
• Mr/Mrs... speaking.
• Please hold and I'll put you through.
• Just a second. I'll see if s/he is in.
• Hang on for a moment.

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Expository writing

Expository writing

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What is exposition?

The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is not primarily to amuse, but to enlighten and instruct. The objective is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. Its essential quality is clarity. Most of the writing that you are required to do at school is expository (reports, tests, essays etc..) Similarly most of the writing you will do after school will be of this sort.
Examples of expository writing include:

• Reports
• Scientific reports
• Term papers
• Encyclopedia articles

Features of expository writing

The main features include:

• Informative
  Expository text is meant to deposit information
• Clarity.
  Using words that clearly show what the author is talking about.
• Organization of the text.
  A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and lists events in chronological order
• Impersonal
  Second-person instructions with "you." However, the use of first-person pronouns should be avoided.
• Unbiased
  Expository essays will not overtly reveal the opinion of the writer.

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How to Write a Business Letter

Business Letter

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How to write a business letter

What kind of letter is it?

A business letter is a letter written in formal language. There are many reasons to write a business letter. It could be:

• to request direct information or action from another party,
• to order supplies from a supplier,
• to identify a mistake that was committed,
• to reply directly to a request,
• to apologize for a wrong
• or simply to convey goodwill.

Elements of a business letter

The parts of a business letter are as follows:

• Sender's address
• Date
• Inside address
• Attention line
• Salutation
• Body of the letter
• Complimentary close
• Signature
• Enclosure

Positions of the elements

Styles of business letters are of two main types:

1. Full block style:
   In this type you align all elements on the left margin.
2. Modified block:
   In this style, some elements are on the left page margin.

The following is an example of the modified block style.

Example

[SENDER'S NAME] [SENDER'S ADDRESS] (optional[SENDER'S PHONE] (optional[SENDER'S E-MAIL] [DATE] [RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX] [RECIPIENT'S COMPANY] [RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS] (Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON], Dear [RECIPIENT], [CONTENT.] [VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)], [SENDER] [SENDER'S TITLE] Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])

Punctuation

Generally speaking, a comma follows the salutation/greeting, but in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.
Source: Wikipedia 

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Lets Learn about Topic Sentences!

Writing | Topic Sentence

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What is a topic sentence?

The topic sentence, also called a focus sentence, is the sentence which summarizes the principal idea of the paragraph. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, it is usually the first sentence in that paragraph.

The topic sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph and adds cohesion to a paper and helps organize ideas both within the paragraph and the whole body of work at large.

All the other sentences in a paragraph have to support the topic sentence by offering more information or details about the topic. These sentences are called supporting sentences.

Example of a topic sentence

Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras. Mardi Gras is French for "Fat Tuesday". This holiday is sometimes called "Shrove Tuesday". People wear masks and costumes, overturn social conventions, dance, organize competitions and parades. Related popular practices were associated with celebrations before the fasting and religious obligations associated with the penitential season of Lent.

The sentence "Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras" is the topic sentence of the paragraph. The other sentences give more information to support the topic sentence.

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The Rules Of Capitalization

Capitalization

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Capitalization rules

Capitalization is the writing of a word with the first letter as upper-case letter (A,B, C, D,...) and the rest of the word as lower-case letters (a,b,c,d,...)
This is a summary of the capitalization.
Read the capitalization rules and study the examples given.

The rules

"Let me show you what the CAPITALIZATION IS"

Capitalize the first word in a sentence.

• They arrived late. They had dinner and went to sleep.

The first word in a quote.

• He said, "You are fantastic."

Capitalize " I ".

• I'm very sorry for being late. I missed the bus.

Capitalize proper nouns.

• George was furious when he heard the bad news from Alice.

Capitalize names of rivers, mountains.

• The Nile River is in Egypt.
• The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest.

The official title of a person, the initials in someone's name are capitalized

• Dr. Lynch.
• D. H. Lawrence is a wonderful novelist.

Days of the week, months of the year, holidays are capitalized.

• We went to Paris on Monday and came back on Saturday.
• The Independence Day is in July not January.

Capitalize countries, cities, languages, nationalities.

• New York is more exciting than Seattle.
• He lives in London, but he's not English. He's Nigerian.
• He speaks English, Chinese and Japanese.

The first word in each line of a poem.

• "Who will believe my verse in time to come,
  If it were fill'd with your most high deserts?
  Though yet heaven knows it is but as a tomb
  Which hides your life, and shows not half your parts."
  Shakespeare.

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Punctuation

Punctuation

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Punctuation rules

Punctuation marks are symbols which

1. organize the structure of written language,
2. and indicate intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.

Punctuation marks are also used to avoid ambiguity. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" has a different meaning from "woman: without her, man is nothing"
This is a summary of punctuation rules.
Read the punctuation rules and study the examples given.

End punctuation marks:

1. Full stop , or period (.)

• Used a full stop at the end of a sentence:
  She stood up and went away. She was furious.
• Used for abbreviations:
  Co. (Company)
  M.P. (Member of Parliament) 

2. Question marks (?)

• Question marks are used at the end of direct questions:
  Where do you live?
  Are you crazy?
  Did you do the homework?
• Use a question mark at the end of tag questions:
  You will help me, won't you?
  He likes soccer, doesn't he? 

3. Exclamation marks (!)

• Used to indicate strong emotions:
  She's so beautiful!
  What a nice girl!
  How interesting!
• Used after interjections:
  Oh! It's awful.
  Hi! What's up?

Commas (,)

• Commas are used between items in a series or list. The last two items of the series usually do not need a comma between them. They are separated by "and".
  I like spaghetti, fish, pizza and couscous.
• Commas are also used between adjectives or adverbs:
  I'd like to have a big, black, German car.
  She speaks slowly, quietly and eloquently.
• After the street address and city in an address:
  34 Hassan II Street, Rabat, Morocco.
• Before or after direct speech:
  He said,"I hate being treated like that."
  "I'm sorry", she replied.
• Before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
  He woke up late, so he had to drive to work.

Semicolons (;)

• Semicolons are used instead of a full stop or period to separate independent sentences:
  They woke up early; then they went jogging.
• Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when those items contain punctuation such as a comma:
  They visited the Eiffel Tower, Paris; Big Ben, London; and the statue of liberty, New York

Colons (:)

• Use a colon to introduce a list:
  He visited three cities last summer holiday: Madrid, Roma and Athens.
• To introduce an idea or an explanation:
  He had one idea in mind: to see her as soon as possible.
• To introduce direct speech or a quotation:
  The secretary whispered in his ear: "Your wife is on the phone. "

Dashes (--)

• To introduce parenthetical information:
  I put on a blue jacket --the one my mother bought me-- and blue jeans.
• To show an afterthought:
  I explained to him my point of view-- at least I tried!

Apostrophes (')

• Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction.
  I'm fed up with his stories
• Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession.
  My brother's girlfriend is such a sweet girl.

Quotation marks ("")

• Quotation marks are used to quote speech, sentences or words.
  She said, "I love you."

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Daily Dialog For Listening Practice

At One's Wit's End

May 26 2015

Intro

A witty person is a funny person. But one’s wit is also a person’s intelligence. You can be living by your wits (making money in a clever way), or you can be scared out of your wits (so frightened that you feel crazy). If you have your wits about you, you’re ready to think quickly in a situation. Your wits are your ability to truly understand what’s happening around you.

If you’re at your wit’s end, you’re unable to think of any more ideas for how to solve a problem. Maybe your baby sister won’t stop crying, no matter what you try. Perhaps you’ve talked with many doctors about an illness, but nobody knows what’s wrong with you. You might feel at your wit’s end if a boy you don’t like calls and emails you every day. When you have tried and tried to fix a situation and you can’t find a solution, you are likely to feel at your wit’s end.

Jessica is at her wit’s end with the office ghost, Oscar. Can she make him stop causing problems? Read more in today’s English lesson about feeling frustrated.

Dialogue

Jessica: I am so nervous.
Brian: Me, too. I love interviewing people, but it’s different when I’m being interviewed.
Jessica: What time is the TV crew supposed to be here?
Brian: 7:00.
Jessica: Huh. That was weird.
Brian: What do you think the news anchor is going to ask us?
Jessica: I think they’re going to ask us why we believe there’s a ghost in the building. What has he done? Are we afraid of him? Did anyone die here? Stuff like that.
Brian: Is Oscar trying to tell us something? Well, are you, Oscar?
Jessica: OK! I am at my wits end with you, mister! Do you hear me?
Brian: I think he’s trying to communicate with you.
Jessica: Do you understand me, Oscar? Good. Now you listen carefully! None of us has done anything to deserve this. You’re being a big bully.
Brian: Yeah! A big bully.
Jessica: We left food for you. We left you blankets, a pillow, and a book. What else do you want? Are you proud of yourself?
Brian: I think that means “no.”
Jessica: I sure hope so. Now find someplace else to haunt. Do I make myself clear? Good. Goodbye and good luck to you.
Brian: Wow. I never want to put you at your wit’s end.
Jessica: No, you don’t.

Discussion

Jessica is angry with the office ghost, Oscar. She is tired of all the trouble he causes, and she wants him to find a new place to haunt. Jessica believes that she and her friends don’t deserve to be scared and bothered all the time. She thinks it’s time for Oscar to go.

Jessica tells Oscar that she’s had enough. She lists everything that has been done for him, and points out that nothing seems to make him happy. Jessica tells Oscar to find a new home, because he isn’t welcome at the office anymore. It seems that Oscar is listening, because the lights turn on and off when Jessica asks if he understands her.

Do you believe in ghosts? What puts you at your wit’s end?

Grammar Point

Passive Voice

Brian says, “I love interviewing people, but it’s different when I’m (I am) being interviewed.” He uses the passive voice.

Sometimes you say things like, “My bike was stolen,” or, “The boy was given a gift.” But who stole my bike? Who gave the boy a gift? You aren’t sure. That’s why you use the passive voice, which emphasizes the person or thing an action was done to, not the one who did the action.

Passive voice is normally formed with to be + a past participle, as in, “Chriswas hired yesterday.” You can use the passive voice in any tense by changing the form of to be. For instance, you can say, “My cookie was eaten” (past tense) or, “My cookie is being eaten!” (present progressive tense). When Brian says that ”... it’s different when I’m (I am) being interviewed,” he’s using the passive voice in present progressive tense.

When you want to include the one who performed the action in a passive voice sentence, you use the word by after the verb. For instance, “Danny will be picked up by his mother today.”

Sometimes, the verb to get is used instead of to be, as in “My sister got sick last night.”

Which is correct, “Lena was bitten by a dog,” or, “Lena was bitten from a dog”?

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